Muslim contributions to Europe's barbarians
Muslim contributions to Europe's barbarians
Of Ingmar Karlsson
Commenting on the terrorist attacks in New York and Washington September 11, 2001 spoke the Italian Prime Minister Silvio Berlusconi of Western civilization inherent superiority over the Muslim world.
He underlined thus one of the most tenacious European historical myths, namely that Charles Martel by his victory against the Muslim armies at Poitiers in 732 saved the West from destruction.
After this kind thronged 'Saracens' back across the Pyrenees, and returned to the south of Spain, where Tariq ibn Zayid in 711 brought them over the sound with his name, Gibraltar (Jabal Tariq - Tariqs mountain). The conquest of the Visigothic kingdom was facilitated by they came to a divided country. The indigenous people were oppressed by a foreign aristocracy, while the Jewish population suffered under church pressure. With the help of the city's Jewish population fell Toledo almost without resistance in the Muslim conquerors hands and Cordoba was captured by a Spanish shepherd who showed a breach in the city walls. When Seville fell in 716 the conquest was complete and the foundation of a Muslim kingdom on Spanish soil for nearly 800 years.
This Islamic presence on the European continent did not lead to the West's downfall, but a unique and fruitful symbiosis between Islam, Christianity and Judaism, and a surge unprecedented in science, philosophy, culture and art, as extensively illustrated in Andrew Wheatcrofts book Infidels . The Conflict between Christendom and Islam 638-2002. (Viking 2003) and Richard Fletcher's The Cross and the Crescent. Christianity and Islam from Muhammad to the Reformation (Allen Lane 2003).
During its meteoric expansion across four continents from Central Asia to the Atlantic, the Arabs had been influenced from all walks of life from the conquered peoples culture - not just Christians and Jews but also Indians, Persians and Hellenized Egyptian. The Greek antiquity survived ever since Alexander the Great in the East and Hellenistic science was kept alive in Egypt, Syria and the Persian Empire. Especially in Baghdad translated Aristotle, Euclid, Hippocrates and other Greek klassikers works into Arabic from Greek, Hebrew and Syriac sources. These translations were not literal, but the original texts commented upon, criticized and provided with extensions. The Arabs thus became the true inheritors of the Greek culture that we so often invokes us. It was they who saved and managed this heritage.
From Andalusia came not only ancient knowledge to Europe, but also Arab Science and Technology. The Arab contribution to European medicine is among the most significant knowledge transfers in history. Abu Bakr ar-Razi/Rhazes (died 935) summarized the medical knowledge of his time in the 30 band and wrote himself more than 100 medical publications that reprinted forty times and for centuries was used in European universities. Especially famous was Rhazes description of smallpox and measles. Even the Persian philosopher and physician Ibn Sina / Avicenna (d. 1037) compiled a medical encyclopedia that used in European universities in the 1800's. Ibn al-Khatib (d. 1374) realized that the plague was spread by touch and Ali bin Isa works on eye diseases and their healing showed a level of knowledge that was first achieved in the 1700s in Europe. Ibn an-Nafis (died 1288), an Egyptian doctor, was the first evidence of the bloodstream, to take another example.
Already in the 900s doctors must take special tests to practice their profession. Medicine man taught at specific hospitals, "Bimaristan" which existed in the larger cities. It also developed specialized doctors surgery techniques. Disease progress was observed and described. Manufacture of drugs from medicinal plants and their impact on the human body were studied. Pharmaceuticals art was so developed that botanist Ibn al-Baitar from Malaga in the 1200s could cataloging over 1400 different medications. Pharmacy as an institution is an Arab invention and Andalusia provided the public with such people medicine.
Arabic astronomers made great progress in the determination of the lunar and planetary orbits. Early also authored scientific papers on tides and already in the 1000's was based Arabic astronomers that the Earth was a sphere. Copernicus and Kepler's work would hardly have been possible without their preparatory work. With the Arabic numerals and the decimal system was mathematical problems are handled in a completely different way than the Roman. This Arabian imports liberated Europe from what a monk called "the tyranny of whole numbers." Our word figure is also from the Arabic sIFR, zero. Muhammad bin Musa al-Khwarismi (d. 846) developed the decimal system uses in his writing "Algorismus". He can rightly be described as algebra and algorithm, the father. The last word is a direct derivation from the Arabic al-Jabr (conversion), the latter a corruption of the name Khwarisimi.
Islam's rapid spread was also very important for the spatial disciplines. From the descriptions from the early pilgrimages from the Islamic cities of Egypt, Syria and Mesopotamia to Mecca arose geographical dictionaries and intercontinental itinerarier. Atlas is therefore an Arabic word and Ibn Battuta (d. 1368 or 1377 visited such diverse places as Timbuktu, Beijing and the Volga, and tolerate well, compared with Marco Polo. Ibn Rushd / Averroes (d. 1198) was his commentary on Aristotle a great influence of Western philosophy and Ibn Khaldun (d. 1406) was his introduction (al-Muqaddima) to the history of the world and by his source criticism not only the modern history of science but also sociology father. Alexander von Humboldt has been rightly termed these and many Muslims, whose knowledge enriched Europe, "Western culture formation and savior."
As a testament to the Arabic influence spanned a variety of areas and almost got the character of what we today would call cultural imperialism can following sample of Arabic loanwords in Swedish earn: algebra, amalgam, alcohol, alcove, arrack, aval, canopy , gasoline, cipher, damask, elixirs, hazard, jacket, morning coat, cable, decanter, carat, chemistry, trunk, pastry, paint, magazine, mattress, marzipan, pajamas, racket, race, risk, safari, satin, Sheriff, Sherry , figure, syrup, sugar, soda, sherbet, talc, tariff, customs, and zenith.
Musical instruments like guitar, mandolin and lute were part of the Arab cultural exports. Even the names of these instruments is therefore Arabic and with them took over Europe also Arabic musical forms. The musical depictions of Arab chivalry during the propagation of Islam was long a favorite theme of Arab poetry and this form was passed on to Europe in the Roman sense shape. Praise of woman in song and music led to a new form of music and poetry that came to France as a troubadour songs and influenced the German memory song.
During the 900s developed Caliphate of Cordoba to Europe's most prosperous power, materially and culturally. At a time when cities in Central Europe consisted of trähyddor Cordoba had 500,000 inhabitants, street lighting, functioning sewer systems and 300 public baths.
The Christians imitated the Muslims, acquired harem and took deep impression of Muslim music and literature. Andrew Wheatcroft quotes a pamphlet that a bishop had published against this cultural assimilation: "My fellow Christians enjoying Arabs poems and romances; studying Mohammedan theologians and philosophers, not to refute them, but to acquire a correct and elegant style. Was one finds today a layman who can read the Latin commentaries on Holy Scripture? Alas the young Christians, whose talents lie in as open daylight, know no other literature than the Arabic, they read and study Arabic books, they gather in huge cost of the great Arab libraries and singing praises throughout the Arab customs. "
This quest for a grander lifestyle is reflected even today in European languages by concepts taken from Arabic. Few of those who visit a gala premiere or a gala evening and then eat a galadiné should be aware that the concept is Arab. "Hila" is the name of the outfit that the orientaliske ruler as a sign of his good graces bestowed especially deserving people, they may have been government servants, artists, poets and scholars. "Hila" was thus the equivalent of our orders. Word was in Moorish Spain turned to gala and who participated in a gala was a "gala" and to its properties belonged to be gallant, a term thus directly refers to the supposedly raw brutes who with sword in his hand is said to have spread his fanaticism across the world.
To the Jews became the Muslim conquest a liberation from the oppression of the Christian Visigothic rule meant. The arabiserades widely and reached high government posts during this heyday and they were also responsible for its share of the rich scientific, philosophical and literary works created by Cordoba center. Hebrew was now revived under Arab patronage. Jews used the admittedly Arabic when they wrote about philosophy or science but Hebrew was the language of poetry. In Andalusia used it for perhaps the first time to non-liturgical purposes.
Jews flocked to the Arabic Spain and Granada got a jew character. An Israeli publishers gave in the early 1980s, a series of books with the summary entitled "The Jewish thought taxes." All six were written in Spain during the period 1050-1428 and all but one was originally written in Arabic. They included two books by Gabriol, better known under his Latin name Avicebron and works of the poet Judah Halevi and Moses ibn Maimon, known as Maimonides.
In the opposite direction were no impulses. The traveler and geographer Ibn Hawqal noted in the 900s that France was a good source of slaves but otherwise uninteresting. It almost eight hundred Muslim empire in Spain have only allocated a single document that indicates an interest in Northern European languages, namely a small sheet of paper with a few German words and their Arab counterparts. The perception of the northern barbarians reflected in a preserved for posterity comment as a Muslim in Toledo brought down in the mid 1000's, and which even today can be used as characteristic of xenophobic groups in Western Europe:
"They are like animals more than people. This enormous distance from the sun makes the air cold and misty sky. They therefore have no heat in the mind, they are raw, storm stranded, pale, long-haired, tröghuvade, lazy, misguided and foolish."
Berlusconi also showed his ignorance of the Italian history when he spoke of the inherent superiority of Western civilization against the Muslim world. Another way for the Arabic influence on European education, science and culture was apparent through Sicily, something both Wheatcroft and Fletcher completely ignore. Year 829 was a Muslim expeditionary force foothold there. 75 years later, the island was conquered along with parts of southern Italy. The Muslim domination was not as prolonged as in southern Spain. Towards the end of the 1000's, was recaptured by the Normans of Sicily but was already in particular cities have undergone a radical Islamization led to a strange mixed culture remained alive for centuries.
The Norman tronic government had a purely Arab character. Roderik the first who began the conquest of the island surrounded himself with Muslim philosophers, astrologers, scientists and his court in Palermo was more oriental than western in nature. For over a century, the island was a Christian kingdom in which several of the highest positions was contained by Muslims.
Frederick of Hohenstaufen ruled not only over Sicily during the 1200s the first half, but was besides Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire also king of Jerusalem. Although he thus possessed Christendom highest civil office, he was in his personal life, half Oriental. He kept a harem and at his court were philosophers from Damascus and Baghdad, as well as Sephardic Jews askenaziska. In the open spirit that existed at his court were the foundation of the Italian Renaissance. Arabic, Greek and Latin was used in official contexts, and from Sicily and parts of southern Italy that was below Normans spread Arab culture and science north. Both Frederick and his son Manfred spoke Arabic, studied Arabic science and philosophy and let translate Arabic works into Latin.
In Andalusia was five languages in everyday use. Two defendants, the Andalusian Arabic and the Romance dialect that would later develop into Spanish. Three used as a written language, classical Arabic, Hebrew and Latin. Schools exercised jointly by all three religions and the Koran, the Talmud and the Bible was common knowledge sources
The transitions from Christianity and Judaism to Islam were common, not least for the reason that when freed from certain taxes, lax certain legal exceptions and lighter could advance in society. Single Christians certainly had the opportunity to advance in the hoof but always risked being subjected to attacks and purges of power shifts. As' mule dies ", a term for Christians who migrated to Islam, their prospects better. Many Christians and Jews, who remained faithful to their religion, choosing instead to Arabic sera its name with the Arabic supplement ibn (son of).
Although a Muslim, becoming another religion according to the Qur'an considered a renegade who deserves the death penalty, there was also tornizados, Muslims who migrated to Christianity. Muslims also made use of the Christian calendar because it was better suited agricultural cycles. They also celebrated Christian holidays such as New Year's and Easter and honored Christian saints.
Muslim Spain is a challenge to our prejudices and stereotypes. It was Islam the superior civilization and rewarding party with Christianity centuries away. There were also long periods a harmony between the communities regardless of race or religion, a Convivencia as the British orientalist William Montgomery Watt in his classic work A History of Islamic Spain, Edinburgh 1969 characterized by the concepts of symbiosis, amalgamation and fusion.
While Watts has a tendency to idyllisera throughout this period highlights both Wheatcroft and Fletcher up the contradictions that were always below the surface and occasionally resulted in open and violent conflicts. Gradually weakened the Muslim regime of internal division and were also subjected to growing pressure from the Christians of the north with their demands for a reconquest - reconquista - the loss of a Christian land. The result of this division became the Caliphate of Cordoba in 1013 was split into several smaller kingdoms. Alliances were concluded between the Muslim and Christian rulers. Marriages between Jews, Christians and Muslims produced many Muslim rulers with light hair and blue eyes. The Muslim nasiriderna in Grenada assisted the Christians in their fight against Muslims in Seville. Military and political alliances were concluded, however, after the medieval principality and riddarcivilisationens customs and traditions and not on the basis of religious affiliation. Himself El Cid - reconquistans Catholic hero for a thousand the second half - struggled during his stormy life on both sides as was a medieval warlord with personal and material ambitions.
Language Professor Maria Rosa Menocal of Yale University argues in his book The Ornament of the World: How Muslims, Jews and Christians Created a Culture of Tolerance in Medieval Spain (Little Brown 2002) that the Christian pressure from the north was not the determining cause of the al- Andalus decline and fall. The biggest threat came instead from the North African Muslim fundamentalist groups that went to the armed struggle with allegations against the Moors to forsaken the true doctrine by its tolerant religious policy. Large bonfires were arranged and then became the plague another hard blow for the multicultural society. The harsher social climate that resulted from this disaster led to a hunt for scapegoats.
From 1000 onwards there was a gradual Christian reconquest of the lost land. Toledo fell in 1085, Cordoba 1236, Valencia in 1238 and Seville 1248th The Catholic Church leadership considered all contacts with Muslims and every compromise as a victory for the Antichrist. The last frontier, Grenada, survived another two and a half centuries as an open city for artists, writers and scientists from all over the Mediterranean region. Granada remained one of the world's most beautiful cities and a haven for Moriscos (Arabs who fled from the Christian Spain) and a diaspora of Christians and Jews.
Year 1492 also fell Granada with its Alhambra palace (Qal'at al-Hamra), the red fortress), which has become a symbol of coexistence between Muslims, Jews and Christians. During this long process of conquest met the Christian victors always a superior civilization. The Islamic culture was more urban, technically developed, spiritually diverse and open to the world. The sense of intellectual inferiority certainly contributed to the ruthlessness with which the Christians treated Muslims. In 1499 let the Cardinal Ximenes publicly burn 80,000 Arabic books in Grenada on the grounds that Arabic was the language of "a heretical and föraktansvärd race". Three years later, Muslims were faced with the choice between conversion to Christianity, exile or death and a quarter million Jews who refused to convert to Christianity were expelled and got a new resident of the Muslim Ottoman Empire ..
The religious conversion frenzy turned into a racist eradication program. The blood, which previously only had significance for the Fatherland solve the nobility, now became a fatal discernment criterion. King and Queen Ferdinand and Isabella did not want to go down in history as monarchs of three religions, but as Catholic rulers, which meant "convivencians' end.
Mongol depredations in the east with the destruction of Baghdad in 1258 and the expulsion of Muslims from Spain meant the beginning of a cultural and economic stagnation that the Islamic world is suffering from today. The Islamic science and art decline began during the 1300s. Instead of scientists and poets were now literalist theologians upper hand with its subtleties and searched then, just as today, a rescue out of its political and social misery through a literal application of the Koran. Philosophers, scientists and poets were persecuted as "rebels against the divine order." The principle of "taqlid" got the upper hand, that is, the ability to freely interpret the Koran banned. Rather than run through the thesis that everything that could be known and worth knowing not only already known, but that knowledge was more reliable the nearer its source was revelation time.
Fuad Zakarija, a liberal philosopher and Muslim from Cairo wrote: "The cultural heritage serves as the economic. One can only expect profit of investing. Unfortunately recalls Arabs relation to their cultural heritage more about a sparbok than productive investment. Paradoxically it was the Europeans who were able to make a sustained profit of our heritage. How? Well, by criticizing and improved it, so gave it a new life. "
Today's Europe is thus more Islamic roots than we usually imagine. Europe is an east-west fusion. Both Islam and Judaism were the Middle Ages constitutive europe ideas. Islam is therefore simultaneously an alien, a native and, by the growing immigration, a new element in Europe today and this populated and Moorish Spain more and more of what was then called enanciados, people who lived in a limbo between cultures.
The main lesson today we can draw from al-Andalus is that a multicultural society can only develop in a positive direction of the dominant culture is open to impulses from elsewhere and religious and ethnic minorities is seen as an asset and not a problem.
In his recent bestseller The Rise of the Creative Class, Richard Florida shows that a common feature in today's economy in the U.S. right is that the big growth is in the towns that are characterized by cultural diversity and an openness and respect for different lifestyles. The story goes thus again. Just as in the Moorish Andalusia combined with successfully the three T's: Technology, Talent and Tolerance.
Ingmar Karlsson
Literature:
Islam, Christianity and the West. A Troubled History, Rollin, Armour Orbis 2002
Infidels. The Conflict between Christendom and Islam 638-2002. Andrew Wheatcroft, Viking 2003
The Cross and the Crescent. Christianity and Islam from Muhammad to the Reformation. Richard Fletcher, Allan Lane 2003
The Ornament of the World: How Muslims, Jews and Christians Created a Culture of Tolerance in Medieval Spain, Maria Rosa Menocal, Little, Brown 2002
A History of Islamic Spain, W. Montgomery Watt, Edimburgh 1969
The Rise of the Creative Class. Richard Florida, Amazon 2003
